Artificiële Intelligentie & Recht
Innovation, Quantum-AI Technology & Law

Blog over Kunstmatige Intelligentie, Quantum, Deep Learning, Blockchain en Big Data Law

Blog over juridische, sociale, ethische en policy aspecten van Kunstmatige Intelligentie, Quantum Computing, Sensing & Communication, Augmented Reality en Robotica, Big Data Wetgeving en Machine Learning Regelgeving. Kennisartikelen inzake de EU AI Act, de Data Governance Act, cloud computing, algoritmes, privacy, virtual reality, blockchain, robotlaw, smart contracts, informatierecht, ICT contracten, online platforms, apps en tools. Europese regels, auteursrecht, chipsrecht, databankrechten en juridische diensten AI recht.

Berichten met de tag Mauritz Kop
Mauritz Kop Speaks at Oxford University on Quantum Threats
Mauritz Kop Speaks at Oxford University on Quantum Threats

Oxford University, 10 November 2025—This afternoon, Professor Mauritz Kop joined distinguished colleagues at the University of Oxford for a high-level panel discussion titled “Quantum Supremacy: Technology, Strategy, and International Order.” Hosted by the Department of Politics and International Relations (DPIR) and the Oxford Emerging Threats & Technology Working Group (ETG), the event convened a diverse audience of scholars, policymakers, and industry leaders to dissect the rapidly evolving landscape of quantum technologies.

Moderated by Sarah Chen, the session moved beyond the hyperbolic headlines often associated with quantum computing to address the granular realities of strategy, governance, and international security. Alongside Kop, the panel featured Dr. Simson Garfinkel of BasisTech, Angus Lockhart of SECQAI, and Professor Michael Holynski of the UK Quantum Technology Research Hub. The resulting dialogue offered a dense, forward-looking examination of quantum threats and opportunities—ranging from the precision of quantum sensing and the urgency of post-quantum cryptography (PQC) to the geopolitical friction points of supply-chain resilience and the risk of sub-optimal governance lock-in.

The Mission of Oxford’s Emerging Threats & Technology Working Group

The context for this discussion was set by the unique mandate of the host organization. The Emerging Threats & Technology Working Group at Oxford University stands as one of the few academic platforms systematically examining how critical and emerging technologies (CETs) reshape the security environment. Meeting regularly to assess the national-security implications of technologies such as artificial intelligence, quantum computing, directed energy, and space systems, the Group brings together participants from academia, industry, and government in a hybrid format.

This institutional design is consequential. By convening interdisciplinary seminars and publishing detailed session reports, Oxford Emerging Threats builds a community capable of treating quantum technology not merely as a laboratory curiosity or a narrow industrial race, but as a systems problem. Within this forum, quantum is framed as a variable that touches deterrence, alliance cohesion, human rights, and the resilience of critical infrastructures. For Stanford RQT (Responsible Quantum Technology), represented by Kop, this mandate aligns closely with the necessity to develop governance, standards, and strategic frameworks that keep quantum innovation compatible with an open, rules-based international order.


Reframing the Narrative: From Quantum Supremacy to Allied Quantum Assurance

In his opening remarks, Kop challenged the utility of the term “quantum supremacy” when applied to state actors. While the term has technical validity in describing a computational threshold, legally and strategically it acts as a misleading metaphor. Kop argued that for democratic states, the more relevant concept is assurance: the ability of allies to deploy quantum-era capabilities in a way that is verifiable, interoperable, and resilient, while simultaneously preserving an open international order.

To operationalize this, Kop proposed the framework of Allied Quantum Assurance, a strategy built upon recognizing that the world is currently crossing a “quantum event horizon.” Much like an astrophysical event horizon represents a point of no return, the current governance tipping point implies that early decisions on standards, export controls, supply chains, and research security will lock allies into long-lasting path dependencies.

The immediate driver of this urgency is the “harvest-now, decrypt-later” (HNDL) risk—a metaphorical “Q-Day” scenario where data exfiltrated today is decrypted by a future, Shor-capable quantum computer. This reality reframes strategic stability: whereas classical nuclear deterrence rests on mutually assured destruction, quantum security centers on deterrence-by-denial, achieved through informational assurance and operational resilience.

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Artificial Intelligence, Ethics, Deterrence, Stanford RQT, Oxford, Quantum Technology, Quantum Computing, Quantum SensingMauritz KopOxford University, Quantum Threats, Department of Politics and International Relations (DPIR), Oxford Emerging Threats & Technology Working Group, NATO, Qubits for Peace, PQC-Migration, Allied Quantum Assurance, Bletchley Park, NIST, supply chains, critical minerals & materials, EU Quantum Act, sensing, cryptography, quantum governance, law, ethics, Simson Garfinkel, Angus Lockhart, Michael Holynski, Mauritz Kop
War on the Rocks Publishes "A Bletchley Park for the Quantum Age"
War on the Rocks Publishes "A Bletchley Park for the Quantum Age"

Washington DC, Nov. 6, 2025—War on the Rocks has published a major new commentary by Stanford RQT’s Mauritz Kop, titled “A Bletchley Park for the Quantum Age.” The article translates his broader research on quantum governance into a concrete, operational blueprint for post-quantum cryptography (PQC) migration across the United States and its allies.

Appearing in a venue read closely by practitioners in defence, intelligence, and foreign policy, the piece draws a deliberate conceptual line from the World War II codebreaking effort at Bletchley Park to today’s challenge of securing democratic communications. It argues that Bletchley Park was more than a geographic location; it was a method—an integrated system of science, engineering, operations, and alliance management. Kop contends that a similar methodology is required now to protect national security systems against cryptanalytically relevant quantum computers.

The Enigma Machine utilized a complex series of electromechanical rotors to produce a polyalphabetic substitution cipher, creating an encryption standard that was widely deemed unbreakable by contemporary adversaries. Defeating this system required the Allies to operationalize abstract mathematics into industrial capability, a feat that fundamentally altered the trajectory of the war.

The article situates PQC migration not as a narrow information technology upgrade, but as a core tenet of United States and allied quantum-AI grand strategy. It highlights how flagship programmes such as the United States Department of Defense’s Replicator initiative must be made “quantum-ready” to avoid becoming silently obsolete once large-scale quantum computers arrive.

Professor Kop extends his gratitude to War on the Rocks editor Lieutenant Colonel Walter ‘Rick’ Landgraf, PhD, whose precise editorial work helped sharpen the argument and tailor it to the publication’s strategic readership.

The Core Argument: A Bletchley Method for Post-Quantum Cryptography Migration

The essay begins from a straightforward technical premise. Once fault-tolerant quantum computers exist, Shor’s algorithm will efficiently factor large integers and compute discrete logarithms, thereby breaking the public-key cryptosystems—such as RSA and elliptic-curve cryptography—on which secure communication currently relies. In parallel, Grover’s algorithm will provide a quadratic speed-up in brute-force search, effectively halving the security margin of many symmetric-key schemes.

In this setting, the world’s cryptographic infrastructure cannot simply be patched at the margins. It requires a comprehensive, carefully managed transition to new, quantum-resistant algorithms.

Kop proposes that the United States and its allies apply a “Bletchley method” to this problem by tightly linking:

  1. Domestic execution of PQC migration, and

  2. An allied, standards-based certification compact that prevents fragmentation.

Defensively, this means post-quantum cryptography by default and certified interoperability across critical systems. Politically, it means that Washington earns the right to lead abroad by delivering verifiable results at home.

The framework is organised around two distinct but mutually reinforcing tracks:

  • Track One – “Ultra at Home”: rigorous domestic execution, and

  • Track Two – “Allied Codebook Abroad”: international architecture designed to avoid a “quantum splinternet.”

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Intellectual Property, Quantum Computing, Quantum Technology, Quantum-AI, Stanford RQT, Governance, Ethics, Deterrence, DemocracyMauritz KopWar on the Rocks, Bletchley Par, Cybersecurity, post-quantum cryptography (PQC), Lieutenant Colonel Walter ‘Rick’ Landgraf, PhD, Shor, Grover, Quantum Computer, Harvest Now Decrypt Later, Ultra at Home, Allied Codebook Abroad, NIST, Standards, Replicator, Pentagon, NATO, National Security, International Quantum Agency, Qubits for Peace, Quantum Governance, Stanford RQT, Mauritz Kop, Enigma Machine, Alan Turing
Mauritz Kop Speaker at United Nations International Year of Quantum Science and Technology 2025
Mauritz Kop Speaker at United Nations International Year of Quantum Science and Technology 2025

On 31 October 2025, Mauritz Kop, Founder of Stanford RQT (Responsible Quantum Technology), served as one of the main speakers at the North America regional workshop on the Ethical, Legal, and Social Aspects (ELSA) of Broadening Global Ownership of Quantum Technologies. The online workshop was part of the United Nations International Year of Quantum Science and Technology 2025 (IYQ 2025), a year-long initiative mandated by the United Nations General Assembly (UNGA) and led by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) to mark 100 years of quantum mechanics and to address the emerging “quantum divide” in access, skills, and infrastructure.

The North America edition was convened by Dr. Zeki C. Seskir and Professor Shohini Ghose as part of a six-region ELSA-of-quantum workshop series. Each regional workshop is feeding into a global IYQ event on the Ethical, Legal, and Social Aspects of Broadening Global Ownership of Quantum Technologies to be held in Istanbul in November 2025.

The program brought together four principal speakers—Mauritz Kop, Bruna Shinohara de Mendonça, Lindsay Rand, and Isabelle Lacroix—and designated commentators Rodrigo Araiza Bravo and Karl Thibault. The workshop closed with an open discussion in which participants reflected on regional needs, expected impact, and the kind of alignment that is necessary for a fair and secure quantum future.

The International Year of Quantum and the North America ELSA Workshop

The International Year of Quantum Science and Technology 2025 was proclaimed by the United Nations General Assembly in June 2024. The resolution calls on states and international organizations to use 2025 to raise public awareness of quantum science, promote education and capacity-building—especially in the Global South—and strengthen cooperation so that all countries can participate in and benefit from quantum technologies.

Within this broader mandate, the ELSA of Broadening Global Ownership of Quantum Technologies initiative focuses on quantum governance. The North America workshop was explicitly framed around three questions:

  1. Which ethical, legal, and social aspects of quantum technologies are most urgent for North America today?

  2. Which ELSA topics are most important globally?

  3. How should the future of ELSA and related policy implications be shaped in Europe, North America, and worldwide, and what forms of alignment are needed?

The three-hour program opened with an overview of the IYQ ELSA event series, followed by the four invited talks, a short break, and then a structured discussion and closing reflections.

From ELSA to ELSPI: A Metaparadigm for Quantum Governance

Kop’s keynote, “From ELSA to ELSPI: A Metaparadigm for Quantum Governance,” drew on his recent work on Quantum-ELSPI and Responsible Quantum Technology, including Quantum-ELSPI: A Novel Field of Research; Ten Principles for Responsible Quantum Innovation (co-authored with, among others, Raymond Laflamme); and his legislative blueprint Towards a European Quantum Act.

He began by defining Quantum-ELSPI (co-developed with Luciano Floridi then at Oxford, now at Yale) as the study of Ethical, Legal, Socio-economic, and Policy Implications of quantum technologies. Classical ELSA—Ethical, Legal, and Social Aspects—was designed for more conventional technologies and, in his view, is too narrow for quantum systems that combine:

  • Dual-use components that can be deployed for both civilian and military purposes;

  • Long security horizons, where sensitive data captured today may be decrypted decades later by cryptanalytically relevant quantum computers; and

  • Fragile supply chains, in which a handful of materials, cryogenic systems, or photonic components create systemic bottlenecks.

To address this, Kop articulated three foundational pillars of the Quantum-ELSPI metaparadigm, developed in a recent Science article with co-authors Mateo Aboy, Urs Gasser, Glenn Cohen, and others:

  1. Standards-First Governance
    Technical and assurance standards—such as post-quantum cryptography (PQC) profiles, quantum quality-management systems, and certification schemes—are treated as the primary vehicle for embedding values into systems. Law, policy, and institutional design are built around these standards rather than attempting to regulate hypothetical risks in the abstract.

  2. Execution-Oriented Ethics
    Ethics is framed as a delivery problem. Instead of high-level value statements, Kop emphasized auditable supply chains, post-quantum cryptography migration drills, and verifiable deployment metrics in sectors such as finance, health care, and government archives. Ethics, in this sense, is measured by what actually ships and how it behaves under stress.

  3. Planetary Welfare
    The third pillar reframes quantum technologies not only as instruments of national competitiveness or military advantage, but as ecological and health technologies. Quantum-ELSPI is thus aligned with the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), emphasizing applications in climate modeling, clean-energy materials discovery, quantum-enabled medical technologies, and resilient humanitarian communications.

Taken together, these pillars elevate Quantum-ELSPI from a narrow ethics add-on to a metaparadigm for governing the entire quantum stack—from materials and cryogenic infrastructure to cloud-based access, algorithms, and hybrid quantum–classical systems.

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Governance, Quantum ELSPI, Stanford RQTMauritz KopUnited Nations, Quantum-ELSPI, Ethics, Law, Policy, Governance, UNESCO, OECD, IYQ 2025, Geopolitics, Societal Impact, Innovation, Science, Mauritz Kop, Stanford RQT
Columbia Law Publishes 'Towards a European Quantum Act' Study by Mauritz Kop
Columbia Law Publishes 'Towards a European Quantum Act' Study by Mauritz Kop

In a landmark academic contribution, Columbia Law School’s prestigious Columbia Journal of European Law (CJEL) is publishing a comprehensive study by Mauritz Kop, a leading scholar in the field of quantum technology governance. Titled "Towards a European Quantum Act: A Two-Pillar Framework for Regulation and Innovation," the paper, published in Volume 31, Issue 1 (Fall 2025), presents a forward-looking and robust framework for the European Union to navigate the complexities of the quantum age. This timely publication in a top ranked journal guided by the intellectual stewardship of renowned Columbia Law professors Anu Bradford and George Bermann, is set to significantly influence the burgeoning transatlantic dialogue on the future of quantum technology.

The full citation for the paper is: Mauritz Kop – Towards a European Quantum Act: A Two-Pillar Framework for Regulation and Innovation (Sept 9, 2025), Volume 31, Issue No. 1, Columbia Journal of European Law, Columbia Law School (2025), final edition forthcoming. Pre-print versions are available on SSRN, arXiv, ResearchGate, the Website of the European Commission, and AIRecht.

The Columbia Journal of European Law: A Bastion of Transatlantic Legal Scholarship

Founded in 1994, the Columbia Journal of European Law has established itself as a leading academic publication dedicated to the study of European law from a transatlantic perspective. Its mission is to provide a forum for the exchange of ideas between scholars, practitioners, and policymakers on both sides of the Atlantic. The journal’s history is deeply intertwined with the development of the European Union and the evolving relationship between the EU and the United States. It has consistently published groundbreaking scholarship on a wide range of topics, from competition law and trade to human rights and constitutional law.

The journal's ranking among the top international and European law journals is a testament to its quality and influence. CJEL is currently the single most cited European law journal in the world. It is widely recognized for its rigorous academic standards and its commitment to publishing innovative and policy-relevant research. The journal’s association with Columbia Law School, one of the world’s leading law schools, further enhances its prestige. Columbia Law, located on Amsterdam Avenue in Morningside Heights, Manhattan, New York City, is an Ivy League institution consistantly ranked 3rd in the country - its name carries weight. You can find more information about the journal on its official website: https://cjel.law.columbia.edu/ and its Scholastica page: https://columbia-journal-of-european-law.scholasticahq.com/. For more on the journal's history, the Wikipedia page is a useful resource, and updates can be found on their LinkedIn profile.

CJEL Guided by Star Professors Anu Bradford and George Bermann

The intellectual rigor and policy relevance of Kop's study are a reflection of the Journal’s guidance and mentorship of two of Columbia Law School's most distinguished scholars: Anu Bradford and George Bermann.

Professor Bradford, the Henry L. Moses Professor of Law and International Organization, is a world-renowned expert on the "Brussels Effect," a term she coined to describe the European Union's unilateral power to regulate global markets. Her work has profoundly shaped our understanding of the EU's role in the world and its ability to set global standards for technology and other industries. Her insights into the EU’s regulatory power are clearly reflected in Kop’s proposal for a European Quantum Act.

Professor George Bermann is the Walter Gellhorn Professor of Law and the Jean Monnet Professor of European Union Law at Columbia Law School. A leading authority on European law, international arbitration, and comparative law, Professor Bermann has been instrumental in shaping the field of European law studies in the United States. His deep understanding of the intricacies of EU law and governance provides a solid foundation for Kop’s ambitious legislative proposal. The combined expertise of these two scholars has undoubtedly enriched the paper, ensuring its legal and political feasibility.

"Towards a European Quantum Act": A Two-Pillar Framework

Kop's paper argues that the European Union has a unique opportunity to shape the global governance of quantum technologies. He proposes a comprehensive "European Quantum Act" based on a two-pillar framework:

Pillar 1: Agile, NLF-Style Regulation: This pillar focuses on creating a flexible and adaptive regulatory framework, similar to the EU’s New Legislative Framework (NLF) for products. It would establish a risk-based approach to regulating quantum technologies, with stricter rules for high-risk applications and more flexibility for low-risk ones. This approach, Kop argues, would allow for innovation to flourish while ensuring that fundamental rights and safety are protected. A key element of this pillar is the "standards-first" philosophy, which prioritizes the development of technical standards as a primary mechanism for embedding democratic values into the very architecture of quantum technologies.

Pillar 2: Ambitious, Chips Act-Style Industrial Policy: This pillar calls for a proactive and ambitious industrial policy to support the development of a competitive and resilient European quantum ecosystem. Drawing inspiration from the U.S. and EU Chips Acts, Kop proposes a range of measures, including funding for research and development, support for startups and SMEs, and the creation of a European quantum infrastructure. This pillar aims to ensure that Europe can compete with the United States and China in the global quantum race.

A Standards-First Approach to Secure a Democratic Future

A central tenet of Kop's proposal is the "standards-first" approach. He argues that technical standards are not merely technical tools but are "vessels for values." By proactively shaping the standards for quantum technologies, the EU can embed its democratic values, such as privacy, fairness, and accountability, into the core of the technology. This approach would not only ensure that quantum technologies are developed and used in a responsible manner but would also give the EU a competitive advantage in the global market for trustworthy quantum systems.

This concept builds upon a recent study published in the prestigious journal Science, senior-authored by Kop. The study, titled "Quantum technology governance: A standards-first approach," was first-authored by Mateo Aboy of Cambridge University, with co-authorship from Urs Gasser, a leading scholar at the Technical University of Munich and Harvard University, and I. Glenn Cohen, Vice Dean of Harvard Law School and Faculty Director of the Petrie-Flom Center for Health Law Policy, Biotechnology, and Bioethics. This foundational work, which can be accessed here at Science, provides the rigorous academic underpinnings for leveraging standards as a primary tool for responsible technology governance.

The paper, initiated by the Stanford Center for Responsible Quantum Technology, suggests the creation of a Quantum Technology Quality Management System (QT-QMS), which would be developed in partnership with international bodies like ISO/IEC and IEEE. This system would provide a certifiable CE mark for quantum systems, signaling their compliance with EU standards and values.

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Academics, Europees recht, Columbia Law School, Stanford RQTMauritz KopEuropean Quantum Act, Quantum Europe Strategy, Columbia Law School, Columbia Journal of European Law (CJEL), Two-Pillar Framework, EU AI Act, CHIPS Act, Nuclear, Governance, Regulation, Innovation, Dual-Use, Intellectual Property Law, Export Controls, Semicon, Q-Day, national security, Industrial Policy, Qubits for Peace, Standards-First, Democratic values, DARPA, Deterrence, International Quantum Agency, EU Office Of Quantum Technology Assessment, Critical Mineral Supply Chains, Anu Bradford, George Bermann, Senator Mark Warner, President Ursula von der Leyen, Tracey Forrest, CIGI, Science, Stanford RQT, Mateo Aboy, Urs Gasser, I. Glenn Cohen, Mauritz Kop
Mauritz Kop Awarded Senior Fellowship at Leading G7 Think Tank CIGI Waterloo
Mauritz Kop Awarded Senior Fellowship at Leading G7 Think Tank CIGI Waterloo

Mauritz Kop, founder of the Stanford Center for Responsible Quantum Technology (RQT) and a guest professor at the US Air Force Academy (USAFA), has been appointed a senior fellow at the Centre for International Governance Innovation (CIGI), a leading Canadian G7 think tank with a global reputation for impactful research and policy advice. This fellowship marks a significant new chapter in Professor Kop's work, allowing for a deeper dive into the intricate and rapidly evolving nexus of quantum technology, artificial intelligence (AI), intellectual property (IP) law, competition policy, and national security. The initial project will focus on developing a comprehensive roadmap for navigating this complex landscape, building on previous engagement with CIGI and long-standing academic and professional connections with Canada.

Mauritz Kop Appointed Senior Fellow at CIGI: A New Chapter in Quantum Governance and Global Security

This CIGI senior fellow appointment is not just a personal honour, but a testament to the growing global recognition of the urgent need for innovative governance models to steer the development of powerful dual-use technologies towards beneficial outcomes for humanity. The challenges are immense, but so are the opportunities. In a world grappling with geopolitical instability and the disruptive potential of emerging technologies, CIGI’s mission to build bridges from knowledge to power has never been more critical. Kop is thrilled to contribute to this mission and to collaborate with CIGI’s distinguished team of experts.

Building on a Foundation: The Dual-Use Project and Previous Engagements

Professor Kop's journey with CIGI began prior to this fellowship, with a seminar delivered on the governance of dual-use quantum technologies. That lecture, titled “Responsible Quantum AI Governance: From Ethical Principles to Global Frameworks,” set the stage for the work he is about to undertake. In that presentation, he argued that we are approaching a “Quantum Event Horizon”—a critical juncture beyond which our ability to shape the trajectory of advanced quantum and AI systems may be irrevocably lost. The core of Kop's argument was that traditional governance models and diplomatic efforts are insufficient to address the systemic challenges posed by a global, high-stakes race for quantum supremacy.

The seminar explored the necessity of a multi-layered governance strategy. This includes not only the development of robust international legal frameworks and oversight bodies, drawing inspiration from nuclear non-proliferation treaties, but also the integration of “Quantum-Resistant Constitutional AI” to hardwire universal values into the technology itself. This dual approach, grounded in the principles of responsible innovation, is essential to mitigate the risks of misuse by state and non-state actors, and to ensure that these technologies serve to enhance, rather than undermine, democratic societies.

The positive reception to these ideas and the stimulating discussions that followed with the CIGI community laid the groundwork for this senior fellowship. It became clear that there was a shared understanding of the stakes involved and a common commitment to forging a path towards a safe and equitable quantum future. This fellowship provides the ideal platform to transition from articulating these principles to developing concrete, actionable policy recommendations.

A New Frontier: IP, Competition Law, Quantum, Dual-Use, and National Security

Professor Kop's first project as a CIGI Senior Fellow will be an in-depth analysis of the critical nexus between quantum technology, AI, IP policy, and national security strategy. The convergence of quantum and AI capabilities presents unprecedented challenges for global innovation and strategic stability, most notably the looming threat of “Q-Day,” when a sufficiently powerful quantum computer could break most of the public-key cryptography that underpins our digital world.

This project will draw lessons from historical precedents, particularly the governance of nuclear technology, to inform the development of novel frameworks for quantum governance. A key component of the research will be a comparative analysis of quantum IP strategies across the dominant tech blocs, examining how different approaches to patents, trade secrets, and state secrets are shaping the global quantum race.

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CIGI, Stanford RQT, Quantum ELSPI, Quantum Technology, Quantum-AI, Governance, GeopoliticsMauritz KopCIGI, Quantum Governance, Senior Fellowship, Intellectual Property Law, Antitrust Law, Ethics, Geopolitics, Dual-Use, national security, Export Controls, WIPO, Patents, Trade Secrets, Grand Strategy, Mauritz Kop, Standards, Democratic Values, Human Rights
A Standards-First Future for Quantum Governance
A Standards-First Future for Quantum Governance

Stanford, CA, August 7, 2025—A star team of leading interdisciplinary scholars from the Universities of Cambridge, Harvard, Munich, and Stanford has today published a landmark paper in the prestigious journal Science, outlining a novel and proactive framework for the global governance of quantum technologies. The Science Policy Forum piece titled "Quantum technology governance: A standards-first approach," was led by Professor Mateo Aboy of Cambridge with senior authorship by Mauritz Kop of Stanford. The paper introduces a "Standards-First" approach to regulation, emphasizing the urgent need for harmonized global standards and Quantum Technology Quality Management Systems (QT-QMS). The publication in Science is the culmination of years of dedicated research, synthesizing key takeaways from our annual Stanford RQT Conference and building on thought leadership established in outlets like Nature.

The paper, co-authored by a team representing the very model of interdisciplinary excellence we advocate for - including distinguished professors I. Glenn Cohen of Harvard Law School and Urs Gasser of the Technical University of Munich, addresses one of the most pressing challenges of the quantum age: how to foster innovation responsibly while mitigating the risks of geopolitical fragmentation and a potential "race to the bottom" in safety and ethics.

The core of our argument is the necessity of a "Standards-First" philosophy. Rather than waiting to apply reactive, and often conflicting, national regulations, we contend that the international community must prioritize baseline global standards before quantum technologies become deeply entrenched. This proactive approach aims to prevent a "quantum splinternet"—a fractured ecosystem of incompatible protocols and norms that could stifle innovation and exacerbate international tensions.

The Quantum Technology Quality Management System (QT-QMS)

Building on this, the paper introduces a practical framework: the Quantum Technology Quality Management System (QT-QMS). Drawing from established standards in high-consequence industries like medicine and aerospace, QT-QMS provides a clear, certifiable pathway for building safe and reliable quantum products. It translates high-level ethical principles into concrete, operational processes for risk management, lifecycle auditing, and supply chain integrity, simplifying future regulatory efforts.

As senior author Mauritz Kop notes, “Publishing this governance framework in a leading science journal like Science underscores our central message: getting quantum governance right is not just a task for lawyers and policymakers, but an essential, collaborative effort that must deeply involve the scientists and engineers who are building this future. We must embed our shared values directly into the architecture of quantum systems.”

The research provides a clear-eyed analysis of the current global landscape and presents a tangible roadmap for building a stable, interoperable, and responsible quantum ecosystem. By championing a global "race to the top" built on quality, safety, and trust, the framework proposed by Aboy, Gasser, Cohen, and Kop aims to ensure that the profound benefits of the quantum revolution are realized for all groups of our societies.

Charting the Future of Quantum Governance: Our Vision for a Standards-First Approach in Science

Our new Policy Forum piece in Science, titled "Quantum technology governance: A standards-first approach," represents a milestone for our team and for the broader conversation around the future of technology policy. It is the culmination of years of dedicated research, building upon a trajectory of thought leadership established through leading platforms like Nature, and with distinguished academic communities at Stanford, Harvard, Yale, MIT, Berkeley, Oxford, Cambridge, Waterloo, Copenhagen, the Max Planck Institute, and TUM Munchen. This work synthesizes key takeaways from our annual Stanford RQT Conference under Faculty leadership of Professor Mark Lemley, where global leaders convene to tackle these complex issues.

At its core, this piece is a testament to the power of interdisciplinary collaboration. It brought together an all-star team of scholars, each a recognized leader in their respective domain, to forge a unified vision for a more agile, innovative, and secure quantum future.

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Governance, Quantum Technology, Stanford RQTMauritz KopScience, Nature, Quantum Governance, Standards-First, Certification, QT-QMS, Regulation, Stanford RQT, Cambridge, Harvard, Munchen, Mateo Aboy, I. Glenn Cohen, Urs Gasser, Mauritz Kop
Stanford University Library Creates Permanent RQT Scholarship Repository Of Selected Works
Stanford University Library Creates Permanent RQT Scholarship Repository Of Selected Works

Stanford, CA, July 10, 2025 – Stanford University Library, in a significant move to advance the field of responsible quantum innovation, has established a dedicated digital scholarship repository for the Stanford Center for Responsible Quantum Technology (RQT), that had its Law School tenure from December 2023 to January 2025. This new collection, accessible via the persistent URL https://purl.stanford.edu/hp536nb5631, will preserve and showcase the influential research and scholarly output of the Center, ensuring its global accessibility for researchers, policymakers, and industry leaders.

The Stanford Center for RQT, founded by Mauritz Kop and part of the Stanford Program in Law, Science & Technology led by Mark Lemley, stands at the forefront of shaping a future where quantum advancements contribute to equitable and beneficial social goals. With a mission to foster interdisciplinary research, education, and collaboration, the Center addresses the profound societal impacts of quantum technologies, promoting competition, transparency, inclusivity, intergenerational equity, and sustainable innovation, all while safeguarding human rights and democratic values. A highlight of the Center's public engagement is its annual Stanford Responsible Quantum Technology Conference, which brings together global leaders to discuss the field's most pressing issues. The creation of this repository marks a milestone in the Center's efforts to disseminate its foundational works, and ensures their longevity.

The Stanford Library Permanent RQT Repository

The initial collection features a selection of the Center's influential publications that underscore its commitment to a holistic and forward-thinking governance approach. The showcased works include:

10 Principles for Responsible Quantum Innovation: Published in IOP Quantum Science and Technology, this seminal paper by Mauritz Kop and his team outlines a guiding framework for the ethical development of quantum technologies, emphasizing principles from safeguarding and accountability to advancing societal well-being.

Towards Responsible Quantum Technology: This foundational paper from the Harvard Berkman Klein Center for Internet & Society Research Publication Series, authored by Mauritz Kop, Mateo Aboy, Eline De Jong, Urs Gasser, Timo Minssen, I. Glenn Cohen, Mark Brongersma, Teresa Quintel, Luciano Floridi & Ray Laflamme, lays out a comprehensive vision for the responsible development and stewardship of the quantum ecosystem.

A Project-Based Approach to Responsible Quantum Innovation

In addition to its publications, the Center's work is driven by a project-based approach that tackles critical challenges at the intersection of quantum technology and society. Key projects include:

Regulating Quantum Technology: This foundational project performs a detailed study of how to sensibly regulate second-generation (2G) quantum technology. It aims to design sui generis governance frameworks that offer strategic blueprints for decision-makers, integrating risk management, resource optimization, and safety standards to ensure that the benefits of quantum are distributed equitably.

Quantum Leap: Decoding Quantum Computing Innovation: In collaboration with the University of Cambridge, this empirical project by Mateo Aboy conducts a comprehensive analysis of the patent landscape in quantum computing. By examining patenting trends, the project provides valuable, evidence-based insights to inform policy decisions related to intellectual property, innovation, and regulation in this rapidly evolving field.

Key Stanford Center for RQT Focus Areas

The Center's research and policy advocacy are concentrated on several key areas critical to the future of quantum technology:

Global Governance and Standards: Studying how technical standards, certification, and other governance mechanisms can foster the trust needed for technology uptake and responsible deployment. This includes exploring governance tipping points, geopolitics, smart regulation, dual-use, supply chains, and export controls, all within a framework that advances first-to-market innovation, reinforces human rights and safeguards democratic values.

Quantum Diplomacy and Government Advocacy: Informing policymakers, diplomats, and the judiciary about the principles of responsible quantum technology, and fostering international dialogue and strategic alliances to shape effective global governance strategies.

The establishment of this repository by the Stanford University Library not only provides a permanent home for the Center's vital scholarship but also reinforces Stanford's leadership in the global dialogue on technology governance. It serves as an essential resource for anyone seeking to understand and contribute to the responsible development of the quantum future.

Thanks to Professor Mark Lemley and to Beth Williams, Associate Dean, Robert Crown Law Library & Senior Lecturer in Law, for curating the RQT Repository.

To explore the full collection, please visit https://purl.stanford.edu/hp536nb5631.

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Academics, Quantum ELSPI, Quantum Technology, Stanford RQT, UniversityMauritz KopStanford University Library, RQT Repository, Scholarship, Stanford Law School, Stanford Center for Responsible Quantum Technology, Fellows, Conference, Mark Lemley, Mauritz Kop
Mauritz Kop gives Quantum Governance Seminar at G7 Think Tank CIGI, the Centre for International Governance Innovation
Mauritz Kop gives Quantum Governance Seminar at G7 Think Tank CIGI, the Centre for International Governance Innovation

Honoured to give a Quantum Governance seminar this Monday at the Centre for International Governance Innovation (CIGI), a leading non-partisan G7 think tank based in Waterloo. We’ll address a critical question: Are our governance frameworks ready for Quantum-AI? https://www.cigionline.org/events/responsible-quantum-ai-governance-from-ethical-principles-to-global-frameworks/

We are approaching a metaphorical ‘Quantum Event Horizon’—an inflection point, or quantum governance ‘tipping point’ beyond which our ability to steer advanced quantum technology and AI towards beneficial societal outcomes, may be lost. In a geopolitical context defined by a winner-takes-all race for the keys to the world’s operating system, the stakes could not be higher. This issue is at the heart of CIGI’s project on the guidance of emerging dual-use technologies.

Responsible Quantum AI Governance: From Ethical Principles to Global Frameworks

My lecture, titled ‘Responsible Quantum AI Governance: From Ethical Principles to Global Frameworks’ explores why traditional governance and quantum diplomacy are not enough to address systemic rivalry and human-machine control problems. Instead, it requires planetary-level thinking and a fundamental shift from reactive oversight to novel paradigms of architectural control. The work builds on ideas we first explored in 'Ethics in the Quantum Age' (Physics World) and 'Establishing a Legal-Ethical Framework for Quantum Technology' (Yale Journal of Law & Technology).

Multi-layered governance strategy

I will make the case for a multi-layered governance strategy. In addition to hardwiring universal values into the technology itself via Quantum-Resistant Constitutional AI, we need robust global legal frameworks and oversight bodies ensuring non-proliferation of dual-use quantum-AI technologies via safeguards implementation (inspired by nuclear governance), including the creation of an 'Atomic Agency for Quantum-AI' and a new international treaty to constitute a ‘Quantum Acquis Planétaire’, or 'Global Quantum Acquis'. This dual approach is grounded in the principles of responsible quantum innovation we've outlined in recent publications with Nature, Harvard Law, Stanford Law, and the Institute of Physics.

I will conclude my talk with emphasizing that building a safe and equitable quantum future requires unprecedented international collaboration, drawing inspiration from successful large-scale scientific cooperation models like CERN and ITER. Now is the critical window for the international community to design and build these innovative governance structures, steering the immense power of quantum science towards beneficial outcomes for all of humanity.

We hope you can join what promises to be a vital discussion.

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Music Law and Artificial Intelligence: From Cloned Artists to AI-Generated Works
Music Law and Artificial Intelligence: From Cloned Artists to AI-Generated Works

The rise of artificial intelligence (AI) in the music industry is sparking a revolution, profoundly changing how music is created. This development raises complex legal questions concerning AI and copyright, including related rights. How can we protect the creative rights of artists and composers while simultaneously allowing room for technological innovation? In this comprehensive yet accessible legal overview, we explore key issues regarding AI and music. These include whether AI can legally train on copyrighted materials without consent, TDM exceptions, how various rights organizations (such as Buma/Stemra and Sena) approach AI, the status of AI-generated musical works, the threshold of human creativity required, protection against AI voice cloning via privacy laws and moral rights, contractual implications, new obligations under the EU AI Act, differences between European and American law, and ongoing lawsuits. This article is tailored for artists, composers, music publishers, labels, voice actors, producers, and AI companies seeking clarity on their legal standing.

AI Training on Protected Music and Video Materials: Legal Framework and Debate

Can an AI model in the Netherlands and the EU train on copyrighted material (such as music or video) without permission from the rights holders? Generally, using protected material beyond private use or citation requires permission. Scraping or using data for AI training without permission is typically considered infringement unless a specific legal exception applies.

Buma/Stemra’s Opt-Out Policy

In the Netherlands, Buma/Stemra explicitly uses its opt-out rights, requiring prior consent for TDM on its repertoire, thus ensuring fair compensation for composers and lyricists.

EU AI Act: Transparency Obligations and System Monitoring

The EU AI Act, effective from August 2025, introduces important transparency requirements, obliging generative AI model developers to:

  1. Disclose training data used, including copyrighted music or texts.

  2. Maintain policies ensuring compliance with EU copyright law.

  3. Respect explicit opt-out signals from rights holders during training.

The Act doesn't prohibit using protected material for training outright but enforces transparency and compliance through oversight and penalties.

Composition, Lyrics, and Master Recordings: Different Rights Regimes

Music rights in the Netherlands broadly split into:

A. Copyright: Protects compositions and lyrics, managed by organizations like Buma/Stemra.

B. Neighboring Rights: Protect recordings and performances, managed by Sena.

AI-Generated Compositions and Lyrics: Completely AI-generated works often fail to meet traditional copyright criteria, as human creativity is essential.

Neighboring Rights: It remains uncertain whether AI-generated performances and recordings attract neighboring rights, as these typically rely on human involvement.

Copyright Status of AI-Generated Music

In the U.S., fully AI-generated works explicitly do not receive copyright protection. While Europe hasn't clarified explicitly, the prevailing legal view aligns with this stance—AI-generated works likely fall into the public domain unless there's significant human creativity involved.

Hybrid Creations: Music combining human and AI input may qualify for copyright protection depending on the human creative contribution's significance.

AI Voice Cloning: Personality Rights and Privacy

AI voice cloning technology poses challenges regarding personal rights and privacy. Artists may invoke:

  1. Privacy rights under EU law (Article 8 ECHR).

  2. Personality rights.

  3. Potential trademark and image rights analogously.

The EU AI Act mandates transparency in AI-generated content, aiming to mitigate unauthorized use and deepfake concerns.

Music Contracts in the AI Era

Existing music contracts require updates addressing AI-specific matters, including (1) Explicit licensing terms for AI training; (2) Ownership clarity of AI-generated content; and (3) Liability assignment for copyright infringements involving AI.

Conclusion: Balancing Innovation and Rights—Be Prepared

The intersection of AI and music law presents both opportunities and challenges. Stakeholders should proactively:

  1. Clearly define rights in AI-generated music contractually and update existing music contracts.

  2. Specify permissions (licenses) and restrictions (opt-out) regarding AI training explicitly.

  3. Seek specialized music & AI legal advice to navigate evolving regulations.

By strategically addressing these issues, artists, companies, and AI developers can legally and effectively harness AI innovations, maintaining both creative and commercial control.

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Artificial Intelligence, Intellectual Property, Machine Learning, Licenties, Naburige rechten, Privacywetgeving, Entertainment en Kunst, EthicsMauritz KopMusic Law, AI, Privacy, Copyrights, Neighbouring Rights, AI Generated Works, Voice-Cloning, Buma/Stemra, Sena, Opt-out, Music Contracts, EU AI Act, Licensing, Privacy Laws, Intellectual Property, Mauritz Kop
Towards an Atomic Agency for Quantum-AI
Towards an Atomic Agency for Quantum-AI

Stanford, CA May 5, 2025 — Today, Mauritz Kop published interdisciplinary research proposing “A Principled Approach to Quantum Technologies”, and the establishment of an “Atomic Agency for Quantum-AI” on the website of the European Commission. The Atomic Agency essay analyzes emerging AI and quantum technology (including their increasing complementarity and interdependence embodied in quantum-AI hybrids) regulation, export controls, and technical standards in the U.S., EU, and China, comparing legislative efforts anno 2025 to strategically balance the benefits and risks of these transformative technologies through the lens of their distinct innovation systems. The Principled Approach paper posits that quantum technology's dual use character brings with it the need to balance maximizing benefits with mitigating risks. In this spirit, the paper argues that quantum technology development should best be guided by a framework for Responsible Quantum Technology, operationalized by a set of tailored principles to optimize risk-benefit curves. Download the paper here.

Towards an Atomic Agency for Quantum-AI

The article analyzes emerging regulation, export controls, and technical standards for both quantum and AI (including their increasing complementarity and interdependence embodied in quantum-AI hybrids) in the U.S., EU, and China and offers novel conceptual frameworks to steward these technologies towards shared global benefit.

Key Takeaways:

1. Converging Need for Responsible Governance: Despite distinct innovation philosophies (market-driven in the U.S., values-based in the EU, and state-driven in China), there's a growing international consensus on the necessity for principled and responsible technology governance for both AI and quantum technologies.

2. The 'Washington Effect' vs. 'Beijing Effect': The U.S.'s security-centric policies are creating a de facto "Washington effect," potentially setting global rules for quantum law but risking premature regulation. Conversely, China's push for state-aligned standardization (e.g., via the Digital Silk Road) signals a "Beijing effect," which could export autocratic norms and fragment global interoperability, a trend exacerbated by unilateral export controls.

3. Potential U.S., EU and China Visions on a Quantum Governance Act: Given the distinct innovation ecosystems and strategic priorities of the United States, the European Union, and China, it is instructive to envision how each might hypothetically structure a dedicated legislative framework for quantum technologies. The research outlines hypothetical "Quantum Governance Acts" for each, reflecting their respective governance philosophies and innovation models, while also considering pathways towards greater international alignment based on shared values:

a. United States: Removing Barriers for U.S. Quantum Technology Act (deregulation, industrial standards-centric approach, Safeguarding through Advancing quantum technology, prioritizing market dynamism, national & economic security, and defense).

b. European Union: EU Quantum Act (harmonized regulation rooted in fundamental rights and societal benefit based on New Legislative Framework while incorporating elements from European Chips Act, renewed focus on defense via “European DARPA”).

c. China: Comprehensive Quantum Law (Safeguarding state control while Advancing state goals, blending elements of authoritarian governance with surveillance capitalism, integration of civilian and military sectors, self-reliance, exporting state norms & values through technical standards).

4. Global Challenges & Opportunities for Alignment: Faced with planetary challenges like disease, inequality and climate change, aligning on Responsible Quantum Technology (RQT) norms and standards is a critical global opportunity. The article cautions against a simplistic zero-sum game or Cold-War redux narrative for quantum competition, arguing it hinders vital international cooperation.

5. Quantum-Relativistic Innovation Theory of Everything: Philosophical thought experiment to understand innovation dynamics by drawing analogies from quantum mechanics (uncertainty, superposition at micro-level) and general relativity (context, structure at macro-level), theories about the fundamental nature of reality.

6. Smart Regulation and RQT by Design: Effective governance must move beyond mere restrictions to actively incentivize responsible behaviors, promoting "Responsible Quantum Technology (RQT) by design" through flexible instruments like Quantum Impact Assessments (QIA), RQT by design metrics, adaptive, modular legislation, & regulatory sandboxes.

7. Harmonized "Quantum Acquis Planétaire": The article advocates for a global body of Quantum Law ("Quantum Acquis Planétaire"), complemented by sector-specific practices. Such a quantum acquis would be anchored in universal ethical values and translated into foundational standards and agile legal guardrails. This requires inter-continental policymaking and strategic "recoupling" between major players like the U.S. and China, based on incentives and shared values (“what connects us” – e.g. human dignity, security, well-being).

8. An "Atomic Agency for Quantum-AI": A central proposal is the establishment of an international agency modeled after the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). This body would aim to enforce a global acquis, deter a quantum arms race, ensure non-proliferation of dual-use quantum-AI technologies via safeguards implementation (inspired by nuclear governance), and potentially oversee a global UN Quantum Treaty.

9. Need for International Collaboration & Research Platforms: Realizing ambitious goals like fault-tolerant quantum centric supercomputing, and scalable topological qudits unlocking higher-dimensional quantum systems leveraging multi-level logic, requires collective global expertise and collaborative research platforms akin to CERN or ITER, challenging protectionist measures that stifle necessary cooperation. Immediate global actions should focus on leveraging quantum for the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), mitigating a 'Quantum Divide,' promoting quantum literacy, and building a skilled quantum workforce.

The research underscores the urgent need for robust global quantum-AI governance structures and calls for a shift from purely competitive dynamics towards pragmatic cooperation and the codification of a harmonized global framework.

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Academics, Artificial Intelligence, Quantum Technology, Stanford RQTMauritz KopAtomic Agency for Quantum-AI, Export Controls, AI Governance, Regulation, Innovation Systems, Standards, China, United States, Europe, Law, Ethics, Policy, IAEA, CERN, ITER, NATO, Quantum Treaty, Nuclear, EU Quantum Act, Mauritz Kop, European DARPA, Quantum Governance Act, EU Chips Act, Dual Use, Responsible Quantum Technology, Washington Effect, Beijing Effect, Brussels Effect, Cold-war redux, Quantum-Relativistic Innovation Theory of Everything, Quantum Acquis Planétaire
Mauritz Kop Expert at Eric Schmidt backed von Neumann Commission
Mauritz Kop Expert at Eric Schmidt backed von Neumann Commission

Stanford, CA – Mauritz Kop, the Frm. Founding Executive Director of the Stanford Center for Responsible Quantum Technology (RQT), has accepted an invitation to serve as an expert on The von Neumann Commission. The announcement, made on February 1, 2025, positions Kop to contribute to a critical global dialogue at the intersection of quantum computing, artificial intelligence, and grand strategy. The Oxford-based, independent research commission is backed by the Eric and Wendy Schmidt Fund for Strategic Innovation and other key institutions. The von Neumann Commission’s inquiry will be multifaceted, addressing the core technical prospects for quantum acceleration, its strategic implications for the global balance of power, the risks to strategic stability, and the necessary governance frameworks to ensure responsible development. The Commission's investigation is set against the backdrop of a new technological paradigm—the convergence of quantum and AI—and is informed by the historical legacy of its namesake, the strategic vision of its sponsors, and the vital perspectives of its experts.

The Quantum-AI Convergence: A New Technological Paradigm

At the heart of The von Neumann Commission's inquiry is the powerful synergy between quantum computing and artificial intelligence. This convergence is not merely additive; it is a cross-pollination that promises to redefine the boundaries of both fields. To understand this, one must first grasp the fundamental difference between classical and quantum computation.

Classical computers, from supercomputers to smartphones, process information using bits, which can exist in one of two definite states: 0 or 1. Quantum computing, by contrast, operates on the principles of quantum mechanics. It uses qubits, which can exist in a state of superposition—representing both 0 and 1 simultaneously. This property, combined with entanglement, where the state of one qubit is instantly correlated with another regardless of distance, allows quantum computers to explore a vast computational space and perform parallel calculations on an exponential scale.

Professor Kop’s Expertise as a von Neumann Commissioner

As a Commission expert, Professor Kop will contribute a multidisciplinary perspective grounded in his extensive research on the law, ethics, societal impact, and policy of quantum and AI. Professor Kop has advised numerous governments and international organizations on their quantum technology strategies, including the United States (notably the Department of State on its quantum foreign policy, U.S. Senators on quantum governance, and as a Guest Professor at the US Air Force Academy), Canada, the United Kingdom, and The Netherlands, as well as multilateral institutions such as the World Economic Forum (WEF), UNESCO, CERN, and the OECD. He has also provided expert guidance to the European Union on landmark AI legislation, including the EU AI Act and the Data Act. His specific contributions to The von Neumann Commission will draw from his expertise in:

● Geostrategy, Democracy, and Authoritarianism: Analyzing the strategic struggle between democratic and authoritarian models of technology governance. This includes his work in Foreign Policy and the Stanford-Vienna Transatlantic Technology Forum on forming a strategic tech alliance among democratic nations and his lectures at institutions like the Hoover Institution on the impact of quantum technologies on the global balance of power.

● Comparative Regulatory and Innovation Models: Analyzing the legal and policy differences between the US, EU, and China. His scholarship, including his "Ten principles for responsible quantum technology" in IOP Quantum Science and Technology, his “Establishing a Legal-Ethical Framework for Quantum Technology” at Yale University, and foundational articles at Harvard Berkman Klein and Nature, dissects these competing models and provides a crucial framework for navigating global strategic competition.

● China’s Quantum and AI Strategy: Providing in-depth analysis of China's legal, ethical, and policy landscape for quantum technologies. This includes evaluating the country's national strategy, its approach to dual use civil-military fusion, its influence on U.S. and E.U. national and economic security through China’s Digital Silk Road Initiative, and its comparative strengths and weaknesses in the global technology race, as analyzed in his “Towards an Atomic Agency for Quantum-AI” scholarship at the European Commission’s Futurium.

● National and Economic Security: Examining the role of export controls, rare earth and critical mineral supply chain vulnerability as published at the Stanford Program on Geopolitics, Technology, and Governance at CISAC / FSI, intellectual property law as published at Berkeley and the Max Planck Institute, and cybersecurity in managing the geostrategic dimensions of quantum technology. His work in these areas, including his contributions to forums like Tel Aviv University's Cyber Week, provides critical insights into protecting strategic assets.

● Standards and Governance: Contributing to the development of robust standards, certification protocols, and performance benchmarks to ensure the safety, reliability, and ethical implementation of these powerful technologies, drawing from lessons from nuclear governance, and from his conferences and seminars at Stanford, Fordham Law, Arizona State, Copenhagen, the Center for Quantum Networks (CQN) and the Centre for International Governance Innovation (CIGI) in Waterloo.

By integrating these insights, Kop will aid the Commission in formulating a holistic understanding of the challenges pertaining to systemic rivalry and great power competition ahead.

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Think Tank, Stanford RQT, GovernanceMauritz Kopvon Neumann Commission, Eric Schmidt, Quantum-AI, Great Power Rivalry, Geostrategic Competition, Game Theory, Law, Ethics, Policy, Philosophy, Stanford RQT, Harvard, Yale, Oxford, Mauritz Kop